System Security Criteria

Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC) is applied in classifying and evaluating the computer security in any given system especially where sensitive information is involved. For that reason any organization such as Medical Credential Company has to initially consider a few factors as well as meet security criteria as provided by TCSEC. There exists four divisions (D,C,B, and A) and C,B, and A are further divided into classes but in the context of this study, only classes C-2 (Controlled Access Protection) and B-3 (Security Domains) will be considered.By choosing Class C-2 means that the company opts for Discretionary Security Protection which is under Division C. class C-2 offers defense of the sensitive information/data ‘against and detection of user abuse of authority and direct probing’. Besides, class C-2 also protects the system form activities of non-users and users who may not be using malicious programs. Class C-2 employs security controls for all ob jects in the system which may be personal files and/or specific devices.Subsequently, an individual is supposed to identify and authenticate him/her –self before login into the system and after using a track record of what he/she has done is kept. Therefore Class C-2 puts emphasis on audit trail for evaluation purposes. For that reason, it calls for a selective method to record all events which have occurred and tools to examine the audit record (DoD, 1985). On the other hand, Class B-3 which falls under Mandatory Security Protection, Division B, puts emphasis on security domains in the system.Systems that conform to Class B-3 criteria enforce what Class C-2 criteria entails, discretionary security policies, and its policy. Therefore, Class B-3 is has more has security features compared to class C-2. Reason being substantial confidence is created that the computer system is protected against misuse techniques for instance human error, direct probing, and abuse of authority by users.In particular Class B-3 protects the system from intentional subversions of the computer security methods hence it is widely employed in addressing defense mechanisms against malicious programs. Besides, a computer system that meets security requirements for Class B3 entails security kernel which implements a reference monitor principle which lacks in Class C-2. Both of these classes entail security requirements -classified under policy, accountability, and assurance- aimed at regulating access to information.Security policy, marking, identification, and accountability specify what control measures that needs to be put in place to regulate access to information. Besides, assurance and continuous protection provides guidelines on how a person can obtain credible assurance that overall security is achieved in a trusted system but security requirements in the two classes differ (DoD, 1985; Nibaldi, 1979). Figure 1.Table of security requirements for classes C2 and B3. Legend: â⠂¬Å"x† -no requirement; â€Å"-† class has same requirements as the next lower class; â€Å"R†-class has extra requirement over the lower classes. NB: Adopted from DoD 5200. 28-STD The security requirements outlined in the above table are functionally-oriented and it is in order for the security manager of the company to consider employing security controls first.Considering the security criteria employed by Class B3, as a security manager in the company, it would be better to seek certification for Class B3. References DoD. (1985, December). DoD standard: Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria, DoD 5200. 28-STD. Retrieved August 22, 2010 from http://www. dynamoo. com/orange/fulltext. htm Nibaldi, G. H. (1979, November). Specification of A Trusted Computing Base, M79-228, AD-A108- 831 (TCB), MITRE Corp. , Bedford, Mass.

Ra One- the Extra-Ordinary Sales Promotion by Srk

RA ONE- The extra-ordinary sales promotion by SRK I've often heard people say, film-making is nothing short of a gamble. And as any gambler will tell you, you've got to gamble huge to triumph huge. Going by this logic, Shah Rukh Khan is The Supreme Gambler of the year. What's at stake, beside the big money invested in RA. ONE of course, is a dream, a vision, an aspiration to make a film which appeals to kids and kids at heart. In short, attempt a film that appeals to the universal audience. At the same time, it ought to raise the bar for Hindi films. Also at stake is SRK's once-unchallenged supremacy as the reigning idol of Bollywood and that elusive thing called reputation. When you invest your repute in your dream project and stick your neck out, you expect nothing short of a mega-success. â€Å"I had a very clear of how we’ll market it. The first clarity was that we won’t have too many images of the film. I didn’t want it to be cluttered. I didn’t want it to be a hero and a heroine and their son. This is a superhero film and we had to introduce that. Whether people like it or not, my marketing thought is if you keep something in front of people for too long, they get used to it. So there was this big fear — when my costume comes out and me with blue eyes, will it be liked? Small considerations like this which you don’t think about while making the film, but when it comes out, people say, â€Å"you know what, your dadhee (beard) isn†t working at all†. SRK The daily promotional strategy of the media savvy Shah Rukh Khan seems to be working when it comes to publicizing his film ‘Ra. One’. He has pushed the film in every way possible – through multiple co-branding deals, in-film plans, promotional tie ups, marketing strategies, gaming and merchandising and much more. The ‘Ra. One’ous appetite of King Khan seems to be insatiable and everyone is being a part of it, whether they understand it or not. The film is thus ending up as the most promoted film till date â€Å"SRK’s strategy is similar to several Hollywood biggies where promotions start several months before release. Typically, big star cast movies and mega-budget releases such as Bodyguard, Singham etc start their marketing around eight weeks before release. But SRK has taken marketing to a whole new level for a Bollywood movie,† says Pritie Jadhav, chief operating officer, P9 Integrated – a division of Percept. The makers of Ra. One are on a marketing blitzkrieg Eros International and Shah Rukh Khan’s Red Chillies Entertainment have brand tie-ups for Ra. One to the tune of Rs. 52 crore of which Rs 12-15 crore has been earmarked for online promotion, an advertising executive involved with the promotion of the movie said on condition of anonymity. Brand tie-ups that the marketing spends of the film have been considerably subsidised. Some of the brands with whom tie-ups have been effected are Sony PlayStation, YouTube, Nerolac, McDonald’s, Western Union Money Transfer, UTV Indiagames, Videocon, Nokia, Coke, ESPN Star Sports and Cinthol. Eros and Red Chillies have recovered part of their huge investment in the film through in-film branding, media endorsements, pre-licensing of cable TV and satellite rights, music and other rights Promotion of the film officially began as early as December 2010 when the first poster was published in all leading news papers across the country. The film's first look was later unveiled by Khan on his Twitter page on January 1, 2011. Several months later, director Anubhav Sinha announced that he would be launching two teaser trailers of the film during the 2011 Cricket World Cup, a prior nine months before the film's actual release date. Ra. One is not a Bollywood film that [the audiences] have seen before. The kind of size and magnitude that the film has requires it to be slowly introduced to the audience and that is the very purpose why we are starting the whole communication so early. â€Å"says Anubhav Sinha The film's first theatrical trailer was released three months later to the p ublic. As a way to promote the theatrical trailer, Khan was accompanied by the director on a five city tour, which included such places like Delhi, Chandigarh, Indore and Ahmedabad. During the same event, a 3600  ft long fan mail collecting audience wishes and messages for the film was also launched. Strategies which have caught the imagination of a population of over a billion Indians * Online Promotions: Approx INR 52crore is the estimated total budget shelled out for Ra. One’s marketing, in which INR 15 crore is for online promotions. Usually Bollywood film promotions only starts eight weeks before release but SRK took it in the Hollywood way, from January of this year with his first appearance in Twitter. Later it was the Facebook Fan page that started off its promotion from March SRK and Google – YouTube announced a partnership deal on mutual benefits basis. An exclusive video was created by Red Chillies (Khan’s production company) and was integrated into the YouTube Channel (Ra. One Youtube Channel). The company launched the official customized Ra. One channel of the film on YouTube(a first for an Indian film) where several song and theatrical promos were released to the public, along with videos of the film's making, events and uncut footage. The channel also hosts games, including the first social game from India, and contests where participants can create promos from clips, music and dialogues of the film. * Merchandise: As a way to promote the film and increase its franchising business, Shahrukh Khan tied up with Seventymm to market a variety of merchandises related to the film. Products included original G. One tee shirts, coffee mugs, wrist bands, watches, mobile pouches, video cameras, as well as many other things. Similar products were also available for purchase on the official G. One online store, which was launched alongside the film's official website. [90% of the 400. 000 stationery items and toys were sold in 15 days and 100. 000 more have been ordered. The makers spent 1. 5 crore on the mold for the G. One action figure. In addition to this, a jewelery line inspired by the symbol of â€Å"Ra. One†,as well as a series of HCL laptops with customized integrated Ra. One skin[59]were also made available to the public. These products are designed in-house by Red Chillies, and have been manufactured in China. By October, 50 products will be sold in more than 3,500 stores and e-commerce sites. Comics: Red Chillies Entertainment collaborated with UTV Indiagames to develop digital comics based on the film's characters. Written by Khan, the comic featured weekly episodes and served as a prequel to the events happening in the movie * Video games: RA. ONE continues to surprise the Indian audience with new innovations on a continued basis. Red Chillies Entertai nment had declared a tie-up with Sony Computer Entertainment Europe (SCEE) to build a full cycle game on PlayStation platform. The video game version of the movie will be called ‘RA. ONE–The Game‘ and will be available on PS2 and PS3 (through PSN download). This is a newer direction for Bollywood to create a win-win strategy of both promoting the film as well as create a brand extension strategy for RA. ONE. The film, with its super hero touches, is appropriate to seamlessly use the PlayStation platform and connect with the In youth. * Print adds and billboards: Print ads have been booked in all leading publications while 1,700 billboards will show the superstar in his superhero gear. This by far the largest collaboration in terms of in terms of billboards for any movie . Somthing or the other we read about the movie everday . * â€Å"Bharat Bhraman† Tour: Shahrukh Khan is places for Ra. One. The King Khan has started his bharat bhraman and caught with his fans from Kolkata to Delhi. Shahrukh covered cities like Vadodara, Gujarat; earlier he was in Chennai for ‘Ra. One’ audio launch in Tamil; and he was in the cities Bangalore , Jaipur and Bhopal Vadodara. SRK did a 36-city tour, which will include several foreign destinations, and one of the highlights of these events will be a 3,600-feet-long fan mail collecting audience wishes and messages. Mobile Engagements and application: iPhone / iPad app for the fans, in collaboration with UTV’s Indiagames. To talk about the app – Ra. One is an arcade first-person shooter game where you can play as G. One to shoot bad guys down with their team leader Ra. One. The game comprises of three terrains – Trainyard, London Bridge and Wasteland with a total of 89 levels (called Waves in the game), starting with Wave 1 and unlocking as you complete each level. Movie themes ,songs , games , wallpapers all of which form a part of mobile engagments are easily accessible over the net * Television promotions: Appearances in three major shows (Just Dance , SA RE GA MA PA Lil Champs. Indias Got Talent)in 3 entertainment channels to participating in ‘kaun bangea corerpati’. Interviews and teasers are a constasnt attraction nowdays for the viewers . Televison promotion is playing a big role in promoting the film * Selling movie rights: Even before its release, Ra. One managed to earn a revenue of Rs132 crore simply by giving away the rights of the movie. The brand equity of film star Shahrukh Khan is unparalleled and his presence in the movie gives a huge boost to distributors and companies to get associated with the brand. Star India got the rights for Ra. One at around Rs40 crore. Apart from this, the music rights were bought for Rs15 crore by T-Series. The producers got a whopping Rs77 crore from Eros Entertainment to own the distribution rights of the movie * Release and Premiere: The movie would be released at over 3000 screens in India and over 1000 screens overseas. Apart from this, premieres at international destinations like Dubai, Toronto and London, which have a high popularity for Indian films are on cards. Due to various new marketing strategies adopted by the producers of the movie, Ra. One managed to generate a lot of positive word of mouth. If not for its success, this movie would definitely prove to be a landmark in the Indian film industry for its advertising and marketing strategies. Will promotional overdrive harm ‘RA. One'? They need to remain prepared to face the severe criticism if they fail to live up to the expectation by even a bit, and it will be difficult to match the hype because they have unveiled almost everything about ‘RA. One'. Audience expectations build up with such a high intensity campaign and the risk is that even a small disconnect can boomerang. That’s not the climax the producers would look forward to. The expections are have increased so much that if the film does not fair according to the standards set by the movie then the audience will feel cheated . Nevertheless the first reactions have come in from the trade analyst and they are optimistic about the film. â€Å"Wow! Brilliant! Mesmerising! Leaves u dumbfounded! Blockbuster! Indian cinema bar raisd! Saw portions of RA. . SRK surpasses himself. †- komal Nahata Watched more than an hour of #RaOne. Left me amazed. Technological breakthrough. At par with intl films. A superhero film that’s super! † – Taran Adarsh These reaction about the movie is only going to create a good word of mouth about the film and this will lead to audience booking there tickets Conclusion All said and done u like the promotions or not but u simply cant ignore the movie. Shahrukh Khan along with his team has made us think about the differentiated strategy implemented across the country . The strategy is here to stay . It has layed down a path that will make other filmmakers to think . As far as the box office collection goes it’s a sure short blockbuster. References * Saxena, Manjari (2011-10-24). â€Å"Ra. One: Shah Rukh Khan has another winner†. Gulf News. Retrieved 2011-10-24. * â€Å"SRK concentrates on Ra. One†. Filmfare. 2010-05-06. Retrieved 2010-08-22. * Press Trust of India (2011-10-21). â€Å"SRK turns salesman to sell ‘RA. One' merchandise†. CNN-IBN. Global Broadcast News. Retrieved 2011-10-21. * Ra. One: Exclusive & Authentic Movie Merchandise†. Seventymm. Retrieved 2011-10-20. * Adarsh, Taran (2011-10-21). â€Å"SRK, Eros take ‘Ra. One' to next level†. Bollywood Hungama. Retrieved 2011-10-21. * Bhat, Varada (2011-09-19). â€Å"Bollywoods longest promotion†. Business Standard. Retrieved 2011-09-19. * â€Å"Shah Rukh meets fans on Google Plus Hangout for RA. One chat†. CNN-IBN. Global Broadcast News. Retrieved 2011-10-20. * Shinde, Shivani (2011-08-30). â€Å"India's first social game for Ra. One†. Business Standard. Retrieved 2011-08-29. * Baksi, Dibyojyoti (2011-10-14). â€Å"SRK's discovery speaks up about RA. One†. Hindustan Times. Retrieved 2011-10-15. * Jamkhandikar, Shilpa (2011-10-13). â€Å"A Minute With: Shah Rukh Khan†. Reuters. Retrieved 2011-10-13. * RA. One's rampage. Prannoy Roy Publications. 2011-10-14. Retrieved 2011-10-20. * Joshi, Tushar (2011-10-18). â€Å"RA. One gets an addition†. The Times of India. Retrieved 2011-10-18 * NDTV Correspondent (2011-10-13). â€Å"I am SRK†. NDTV. Prannoy Roy Publications. Retrieved 2011-10-13. * Press Trust of India (2011-10-14). â€Å"Ra. One gets Rs 52-cr promotional push†. CNN-IBN. Global Broadcast News. Retrieved 2011-10-14.

American Christians Essay

On August 6 and August 9, 1945, the world saw the first and only usage of atomic weaponry in the history of the world. President Truman said that his decision to use the bomb was for the chief purpose of ending WWII, the deadliest war in human history, as quickly as possible. Multiple warnings were given to Japan about this new weapon in the hope that they would surrender. Japan did not heed these warnings before or even after the dropping of the first bomb on the city of Hiroshima. An invasion of Japan, which was planned for the spring of 1946, would cost an estimated 500,000 American lives and in the event of such an invasion, it was learned that plans dated August 1944, for the murder of more than 100,000 Allied POWs would be carried out. (Goodwin, 2003 pg. 338) However, the major scientists of the day who worked on the project as well as the chief Allied commanders in the field, believed that the use of the bomb was unnecessary as Japan was planning to surrender in the immediate future without the influence of the bomb and that further usage of atomic bombs, was not only unnecessary but immoral and constituted a war crime as it was a crime against humanity. The atomic bomb started with the Manhattan Project. This was the name given to the highly classified, top secret project in order to beat the Germans to have the first atomic bomb in the history of the world. The project was initially started by refugee European scientists, most notably, Albert Einstein, who in a letter to President Roosevelt in the spring of 1939, warned that the Germans were aggressively seeking out the use of such a bomb and that the atomic age, whether the world liked it or not, was upon us and it would behoove the United States if they were the first ones with this technology and not the Axis powers. This letter sparked what would become the largest and most costly development research project of its time. During World War II, the number of American deaths would exceed 400,000. This was nothing in comparison to the more than the seventeen million deaths that were suffered by the Soviet Union; America’s contentious ally. This resulted in the aggressive pursuit of the war in which any means necessary would be used in order to end the war as quickly as possible and decrease the number of American deaths. It was also necessary that the Manhattan Project be kept top secret. The project was so top secret that Vice President Harry Truman did not know of its plans until he secured the White House at the death of President Roosevelt in April of 1945. Only then did President Truman learn and then approve the further testing and continuation of the plan. The atomic bomb was World War II version of chemical warfare, except that it was on a much larger scale. Therefore, a greater degree of responsibility must be attached to its possible use in war. As a result, President Truman commissioned a group of prominent citizens and respected scientists to advise the President on the possible use of the atomic bomb. U. S. Secretary of War, Henry Stimson, concluded the report by saying: â€Å"Our great task is to bring this war to a prompt and successful conclusion. †(Lamplier 2006) However, there were other thoughts on the subject. Robert Oppenheimer said that the bomb could kill 20,000 people and that the target should be a military and not a civilian target. Furthermore, Dr. Arthur Compton, a scientist, argued that the bomb should be dropped in a remote area of Japan where there was known to be a sparse population so that minimal life would be lost but that Japan could see first hand, the destruction of the bomb and be prompted to surrender. This suggestion was soon dismissed as it would be disadvantageous if Japan was prompted of the attack before it happened and the plane would be shot down or if the bomb was dropped and did not detonate, this would be a major problem as future attempts to warn the Japanese would fall on unbelieving ears. Also, there was a real possibility that the bomb would not work as this was a new invention with only one test explosion under its belt. â€Å"In July of 1945, President Truman reexamined the use of the bomb and in the end, agreed that the best thing to do, in order to bring a prompt end to the war, would be to utilize the bomb’s destructive force and appeal for intimidation in order to bring the war to an end. † (McCullough, 2005 pg. 188) The stage was set for the world’s only use of this new and terrible weapon. On July 26, 1945 President Truman and other Allied leaders outlined their conditions for surrender in what would be called the Potsdam Declaration. It said: â€Å"The full application of our military power, backed by our resolve, will mean the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forced and just as inevitably, the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland†¦ We call upon the government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forced, and to provide proper and adequate assurances of their good faith in such action. The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction. † (Rhodes, 1985 pg. 129) This message would be rebroadcast over Japanese radio as well as printed on thousands of leaflets that were dropped over Japan. This did not yield the response that the Allied Forces had hoped for and it was ignored. Emperor Hirohito was yet to receive word that the Soviet Union had declared war on Japan, or were ever going to and therefore, did not feel the necessity to accept the possibility of surrender. The bombings would have to continue as planned. Upon waiting for ideal weather temperatures, a B-29 named the Enola Gay after one of the pilot’s mother, set off for their target of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Six hours after the flight began, the B-29 and its captain, Paul Tibbits, came upon their target and the bomb, nicknamed ‘Little Boy† for the shape of the bomb was dropped on the unsuspecting city. The bomb contained over 130 pounds of the highly explosive uranium-235 and even though only 1% of that would be efficiently used in the drop, the bomb performed as expected. (Meyers, 2001 pg. 77) The bomb detonated 600 meters above the ground and had a blast equal to 13 kilotons in which 90,000 people were instantly killed. It is also likely that hundreds of Allied Prisoners of War and 2,000 Japanese Americans present before the war in which they were attending school overseas and were unable to leave once the war broke out, died in the blast as well. Also, the number of deaths needs to be grouped into two main categories: those that died at the initial blast and those that lingered in agony for days or even weeks before the succumbed to the high levels of radiation that they had been exposed to as a result of the blast. 90% of the buildings in Hiroshima were leveled to the ground and fires which stretched for 11 square miles were also seen as a result of the bombing. (Nichols, 1985. 229) A new and most lethal weapon had been unleashed for the first time upon a city. The destruction was complete but was still not enough to compel Japan to surrender. Plans for a second atomic bomb had been already planned for, in the event that it would be needed. Plans were now made for the usage of this second bomb and its dropping over Nagasaki. Despite the total destruction of the bomb, a second one was needed as the first did not compel Japan to surrender. President Truman declared: â€Å"If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air the likes of which has never been seen on this earth. † (McCullough, 2005 pg. 219) On August 8th, 1945, thousands of additional leaflets were dropped and warnings were given to Japan. As a result of Japan’s refusal to surrender, a second bomb was dropped over the city of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. This bombing included more than 14 lbs of plutonium 239 and which exploded more than 430 meters above the ground. This cased winds of more than 600 mph and had the power of 21 kilotons of TNT. The estimated heat that the bomb caused was more than 7000 F and an estimated 80,000 people were killed with another 60,000 injured; many of whom would die from their injuries in the coming weeks and months. (Lamplier, 2006) There still was no sign of Japan’s surrender and the United States planned for more bombings. The debate over America’s use of the atomic bomb has increased as the years continued. There is a great deal of evidence, both for and against the use of the atomic bomb. It was later learned by the public, that a mass invasion of Japan was scheduled in March of 1946 in a final attempt to end the war. There is no way of being able to accurately calculate the number of casualties but one estimate from Secretary of State James Byrnes, believed that 500,000 American lives would be lost as well as hundred of thousands Japanese lives as well if an invasion were to occur. (Lamplier, 2006) An initial wave of American forces, it was estimated, would yield close to 100,000 deaths and with future waves of invasion forces, three to four times that number would be seen it was generally believed. Also, there has been a political stalemate within Japan between the military and the civilian forces over the possibility of surrender. The civilian forces had been seeking a way in which to obtain a favorable and honorable surrender but this was seen as out of the question among the military generals. Also, after the war, it was learned that plans by Japanese forces to murder more than 100,000 Allied POWs, if an invasion were to occur, helped the cause of justifying the use of the atomic bomb in order to avoid an invasion and end the war as quickly as possible, thus saving hundreds of thousands of American lives as well as Japanese lives in the process. However, there has been in the decades after the war, an increasing number of detractors who have said that the usage of the atomic bomb was unnecessary and that more peaceful measures could have been used in order to bring the war to a close. One of the scientists, Leo Szilard, wrote to President Roosevelt in 1939, about the morality of the bomb. It seemed as a paradox that many of the scientists, who worked on the Manhattan project, did not advocate the usage of the bomb. In the letter, it was believed that had Germany used the bomb of the United States, the US would almost certainly decry this action as being representative of war crimes. Therefore, the same would have to be believed had America dropped such a bomb on their enemies. The letter reads as such: â€Å"Suppose Germany had dropped one bomb, say, on Rochester and the other on Buffalo, and then having run out of bombs she would have lost the war. Can anyone doubt that we would then have defined the dropping of the atomic bombs on cities as war crimes, and that we would have sentenced the Germans who were guilty of this crime to death at Nuremberg and hanged them? † (Goodwin, 2003 pg. 225) However such beliefs have now come under intense scrutiny as to date, the droppings of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki still stand as the world’s only use of atomic weaponry upon the world. There were further scientific detractors from the use of the bomb. In March 1945, scientist Dr. James Franck questioned the use of the bomb in relation to public opinion towards the United States on a world wide basis. â€Å"If the United States were to be the first to release this new means of indiscriminate destruction upon mankind, she would sacrifice public support throughout the world, precipitate the race for armaments, and prejudice the possibility of reaching an international agreement on the future control of such weapons. † (Meyers 2001 pg. 227) Further backlash against the use of the bomb was seen by the Federal Council of Churches in March 1946 in which a joint statement read: â€Å"As American Christians, we are deeply penitent for the irresponsible use already made of the atomic bomb. † However, at that time, there were no implications against President Truman concerning possible political motivations until after he had left office in 1953. Peter Kuznick, director of the Nuclear Studies Institute at American University, believed that the President was politically motivated in his use of the bombs. â€Å"He knew he was beginning the process of annihilation of the species. It was not just a war crime; it was a crime against humanity† The usage of the atomic bombs, resulted in many believing that the world, as the result of American usage of the bombs, had pushed the world to the point of no return in the usage of atomic weaponry. â€Å" (Goodwin, 2005 pg. 255) It was then implied that the United States was motivated by the desire to scare the Soviet Union with their new invention. Ever since the meting at Yalta in which President Roosevelt, Joseph Stain and Winston Churchill met in order to carve out a post war Europe and what the future of the world would represent, there had been a tremendous amount of suspicion towards the Soviet Union and their communist ideas. At the Yalta Conference, President Roosevelt erroneously believed that he and the United States could keep the Soviet Union in check. This was an assumption which proved to be incorrect to an alarming degree, the closer the Allies got to realizing victory in World War II. By the summer of 1945, it was obvious to all, that the end of WWII would only signal the beginning of a new war between the Soviet Union and the United States. At that time, nobody knew how that war would end as the Soviet Union, despite their heavy losses in WWII, was an even match with the United States. The only thing which the United States had was the atomic bomb and it could not have been seen than in only four short years after the end of the war, The Soviet Union would have an atomic bomb of their own. This further increased the number of detractors of the use of the atomic bomb and its suspected use towards intimidating the Soviet Union with its use on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Also, two of the most famous and powerful American generals during the war, Dwight Eisenhower and Douglas MacArthur, both disagreed with the use of the bomb. Eisenhower, in his memoir The White House Years, commented on the use of the bomb. â€Å"During the recitation of the relevant facts, I had been conscious of a feeling of depression and so I voiced to him (Secretary of War Stinson) my grave misgivings, first on the basis of my belief that Japan was already defeated and that our dropping of the bomb was completely unnecessary, and secondly because I thought that our country should avoid shocking the world opinion by the use of a weapon whose employment was, I thought, no longer mandatory as a measure to save American lives. † (Eisenhower, 2003 pg 77) Eisenhower was not alone. Other generals also believed that the dropping of the bomb was unnecessary. Douglas MacArthur, who publicly hated Truman said that he thought that such an event was unnecessary and later said: â€Å"Japan would have surrendered even if the atomic bomb had not been dropped, even if Russia had not entered the war, and even if no invasion had been planned or contemplated. † (Tarver, 2004) Also, by President Truman not dropping the bomb when he had the chance to, upon the American public learning of this, would have sealed Truman’s political future as well as the political future of the Democratic Party for years to come, regardless of an Allied victory soon after August 1945. The American public had endured three and a half years of a deadly war, not seen in measure since the Civil War and the American public had been largely in favor of the bombings of Dresden and Tokyo which yielded comparable numbers of deaths as it was believed that such bombings would end the war quicker. When President Truman said that his motivation for use of the bomb was to end the war as quickly as possible, he echoed the prevailing opinion of the American public. In the decades since the end of the war, there has been new information which has both led to a further belief in the correctness and the immorality of the usage of the bomb. The suggestion to drop the bomb in a desolate area of Japan would have been a proper compromise between the two prevailing schools of thought. The bomb would have been dropped and a successful display of this new invention and its destructive power would be achieved with minimal loss of life. This did not occur and only President Truman, as it was he who had the final power to drop the bomb, knew what his real motivations were in what still is, the world’s only usage of the atomic bomb upon its citizens. WORKS CITED Goodwin, D. (2003). No Ordinary Time. New York: Simon & Schuster Eisenhower, D. (1998). The White House Years. New York: Scribners Lamplier: J. (2006) FDR. Boston: PBS Productions. Manchester, W. (1987) The Last Lion: Alone . New York: Simon & Schuster. McCullough. D. (2005). Truman. New York: Scribners. Meyers, J. (2001). Fat Man & Little Boy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Murrow, E. (1991). Revisiting Los Alamos See It Now. New York: CBS Productions Nichols. H. (1985) The Manhattan Project Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1985 Rhodes, R. (1985) Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster Tarver, M. (2004) Douglas MacArthur Boston: American Experience PBS Productions

Culture Of China Regarding Religion, Food, Communication, Time, And Term Paper

Culture Of China Regarding Religion, Food, Communication, Time, And Space - Term Paper Example The following discussion is an effort to highlight the exceptional and distinguished aspects of Chinese culture regarding religion, cuisine, communication, time, and space. The Chinese culture is largely influenced by ancient Chinese philosophies that have been practiced in China for thousands of years. Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism are the three major religions that are practiced in China by a majority of people. Myriad differences that appear too subtle to the common public exist between these three major religions. The general public is way much oblivious to these distinctions and thinks that the religious teachings and moral values originating from these different religions is more or less the same. Intricate differences between these religions are obvious to a minimal percentage of Chinese public. Still, religious practice is still fervently adopted by many people in China, which is a heavily optimistic sign in today’s much industrialized and modernized world that is too materialistic and ignorant of religious restrictions. Actually, it is those distinctions existing between the three major Chinese religions that have evolved the Chinese culture which is so dynamic and vibrant. One common and enthralling aspect of the Chinese culture that is acquired from the fusion of ancient religions is that it is required of every person to live in harmony with all the other people, no matter if that other person is a friend or a foe. This is one profoundly appreciable aspect of the Chinese culture, which demands every person to seek and spread love regardless of societal, ethnic, or racial pressures. The Chinese cuisine is overwhelmingly popular around the globe among all age groups and bags huge appreciation almost every year in myriad prestigious annual global food contests. Much of the Chinese cuisine is derived from the cooking practices that were significantly vibrant in the Dynastic ruling period. It is worth mentioning here that ancient Chinese rule rs used to host large meals consisting of hundred of traditional dishes at one time. (Ling, 2002, p. 34). It is from this traditional hospitality of hosting large banquets that a whole wide array of variations exist in Chinese cuisine that appeal hugely not only to the Chinese people but by almost everyone around the world. These variations in cuisine also originated and prevailed in the Chinese culture because the Dynastic period was open to many enriched influences from the surrounding countries. China’s gourmet culture and true connoisseur experience has been creating waves of innovation and taste around the world for many past years. The up side about the Chinese cuisine is that it offers extremely stomach friendly food and this fact is acclaimed by all the nutritional specialists around the world. This is because with the cooking oil that is pretty scarce in the country and expensive meat, Chinese food experts have diverted the taste of the Chinese public towards inexpen sive but nutritious and heavenly tasty foods. An important and interesting fact regarding the Chinese communication is that it can be both verbal and non-verbal, and both modes of communication are very important when

Compare contemporary advances in the biological sciences to victor Research Paper - 1

Compare contemporary advances in the biological sciences to victor Frankestein's creation and discuss the moral and ethical questions that both share - Research Paper Example Regenerating life using electricity becomes Victor’s obsession.(Storment 2). It is this discovery by Frankensteins of creating life that introduces the duality of science. Storment says, â€Å"Just as science can end up creating dual reactions, electricity holds this same power. Electricity holds the power of magnetism -- the negative and positive forces pulling away from each other.† This is a good example of many aspects of Frankenstein, with good versus evil also demonstrated. (Storment 2).Perceptions of science and the hazardous power it potentially holds are demonstrated in Mary Shelley’s novel. â€Å"Modern day science deals with the exact issues of which Shelley was apparently keenly aware.†(Storment 2) .Ethics is introduced to the knowledge of science, and science is even given a conscious. It seems Shelley acknowledged that â€Å"the future of science, if uncontrolled, could be disastrous.†(Storment 2).It is as if Mary Shelley lives in our current world, recognizing that the modern scientific discoveries of nuclear weapons and genetic engineering could in the end be our demise.(Storment 2) â€Å"What genetic engineering is to our day with such uncharted revolutionary avenues as cloning and the possibility for altering or eliminating defective genes, electrochemistry was to Mary Shelleys† says Stuart Curran. Genetics represents the cutting edge of the material sciences, promising and frightening in equal measure. The developing new science is challenging deep-rooted distinctions in our society. Between , â€Å"life and non-life, the natural and the artificial, the evolved and the designed, and even the material and the informational.†( Henk 2).Whenever such boundaries are breached, scientists are accused of playing a higher power, and perhaps treading in Frankeinstin’s footsteps.( Henk 3) Synthetic biology, which represents modern day science, puts heavy weight on many of the culturally well-established distinctions

Bilingual Education, Oil, and the Navajo Nation Research Paper

Bilingual Education, Oil, and the Navajo Nation - Research Paper Example Bilingual education is a form of education where information is presented to learners in two or more distinct languages. In the United States, though English has not been endorsed as the official national language, most schools if not all in the U.S.A use English in the teaching of schools not considering that America is also comprised of other various native languages that may get extinct as a result of only using English in teaching in schools (Romaine, 1995). Discussion The state of Arizona has in the resent past been the subject of discussion in matters relating to bilingualism in education since it is majorly populated by the people of the Navajo nation who have and would like to use their language in the education of their children. The people of Navajo who speak Athabaskan have been objecting the education of their children in English since this has saw the steady decline in the number of people who speak Athabaskan. The state of Arizona has since developed a proposition 203, which is an initiative that illegalizes the use of native language in instruction of learners who have a limited a proficiency in English in public schools. The proposition has also made sure that the new law is implemented to the latter by micromanagement of schools using the electoral process to implement the English only policy in public schools (Favela, 2008). In the recent discovery of oil in the territory that had been assigned to the Navajo, they might as well scrap this law off since they only demand for bilingual instruction in the education of public schools surrounding their nation. U.S.A has no territorial rights in the Navajo territory as this area is private property and belongs entirely to the nation of Navajo. The scraping off of this newly implemented law is likely due to the fact that the nation of U.S.A is really in great need of locating more energy resources within its borders; the prospect of a major onshore oil field in Arizona is very significant. As your leg al adviser, I have devised several policies that you would choose if you see fit to present to the council of the Navajo representatives to assess whether they would be swayed to consider their hard-line stand in regard to the reintroduction of bilingua

Population Crisis in India Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Population Crisis in India - Research Paper Example A vast majority of the Indians are deprived of clean water for drinking, education, health care, sanitation, and employment opportunities. If the population of India continues to grow at the present rate, it is anticipated that it would have crossed the limit of 1700 million, which would be even more than the population of China. At the present rate of growth of population, India gets 16 million more people to take care of on a yearly basis. This paper discusses the effects of overpopulation in India. Population crisis in India is causing a lot of social, health, and technical problems, which endanger the solidarity and stability of India. Overpopulation in India is also a cause of myriad of social problems. People have an urge to have boys. People live in extreme poverty, to alleviate which, they encourage their children to enter the workforce in their childhood rather than getting them educated in schools. In fact, one of the main reasons of overpopulation is poverty. Poverty is bo th a cause and effect of overpopulation in India. Since India is conventionally a male-dominated society, having girls is not appreciated in India. People find it hard to marry their daughters since they have to give dowry, which they cannot afford owing to their poverty. Many Indians either abort their baby girls during pregnancy, or kill them immediately after they are born in an attempt to shed off the weight on their shoulders. Continuation of this practice over the decades has led to an imbalance between the population of men and women in India. The population of men outweighs that of the women which has led to spread in the culture of brothel houses, rape, and incest in India. Overpopulation of men in India plays a role in making it an even more conservative society, wherein women are denied their rights of working shoulder to shoulder with men. Another social problem caused by overpopulation in India is increase in crime rate. There are a lot of candidates for a single job. A ccordingly, many are left unemployed. In order to make both ends meet, people tend to acquire money through illegitimate means, thus indulging into such acts of crime as theft and robbery. It is not hard to hire a man to get someone killed in India as the frustrated poor people would agree to do anything for money. This has helped the terrorists to gain more control in India as they pay such poor people to practice their evil machinations. In addition to that, overpopulation in India has led to civil unrest and a lot of communal tensions. Overpopulation in India has exposed the people of India to a lot of health risks. Diseases like hepatitis, cancer, and AIDS are spreading rapidly. The fundamental cause of the spread of hepatitis is lack of supply of clean water for drinking. Malnutrition also increases the chances of an individual to acquire hepatitis. Millions of Indians acquire some sort of cancer every year as a result of living in a polluted environment. Among all sorts of pol lutions, air pollution and water pollution are amongst the most frequent causes of cancer in India. More and more Indians are acquiring AIDS because of lack of sex education, lack of use of contraception, and the availability of brothel houses. These and many more similar health risks have led to an increase in the spread of diseases in India. People are too poor to afford good health care. The mortality rate has surged up as a result of poor health care facilities. Overpopulation

Baroque Music Play List Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Baroque Music Play List - Term Paper Example Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart- Ave Verum Corpus: While we listen to it, we can feel a great and rare angelic beauty making its way to our hearts. It makes the listeners feel blessed and calm. Mozart was a prolific and influential  composer of the  Classical era. He composed over 600  works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of  symphonic, chamber, piano,  operatic, and  choral  music. He is among the most enduringly popular of  classical  composers. Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood in  Salzburg. Already competent on  keyboard  and  violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. Antonio Lotti- Crucifixus : This is a magnificent , high quality music made for vocal performance. I chose this for I was amazed by its contrapuntal techniques and variety of voices. Lotti produced masses, cantatas, madrigals and around thirty operas and instrumental music. His work is thought to be the bridge between the established baroque and emerging Classical styles.

Sports fitness centre in Mayfair London Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sports fitness centre in Mayfair London - Essay Example 2. Situation Analysis Overall wellbeing and health fitness has become a major concern in every society. There has been an increase in the number of people becoming obese and overweight. More than half of London adults do not engage in any form of sport or fitness program. To achieve a healthy weight the Mayor of London proposes to work closely with and encourage a wide range of people to become physically active and eat healthy (Johnson, 2011). Other measures include making sport and active recreation opportunities affordable, in addition to supporting workplace health programmes. London faces a significant shortage of sporting facilities in respect to the demand. 3. Target Market Analysis Britain is in the grip of obesity epidemic (This is London, 2011). According to experts by 2050 at least 60 percent of the population will be obese (London Assembly, 2010). The target market is the young adults and the adults of both sexes. According to a study by the London-based International Obesity Taskforce that 28 per cent of boys and 36 per cent of girls in the UK are now overweight or obese (Dobson, 2006). A UK government report estimated that by 2010 12 million adults and 1 million children in England will be obese (Medical News Today, 2006). Less physically active and eating more junk food is adding to the problems. Thus, the target market for the fitness centre would be the age group 16-40 of both sexes. 4. Problems and Opportunities The people of Mayfair would not be aware of the Fitness Centre yet to open. People could be apprehensive of the quality of service, equipments and coaches. However, since the demand exceeds supply, the opportunity could be used to penetrate the market with the right strategy. The government is also supporting fitness initiatives and obesity is at an all time high. 5. Marketing strategy Customers seek value for money and hence the fitness centre should understand the services it can extend in exchange for money while knowing the target audience to whom the services are directed. The objective is market penetration in the initial stages. Knowing the target audience will enable to include the essential features at the fitness centre. The core strengths of the fitness centre need to be communicated effectively. The marketing strategy for ABC Sports fitness centre would take into account various factors in devising the marketing strategy. 5.1 Product Positioning The leisure industry is a high-growth area which includes health, fitness, sports and recreation facilities. This sector contributes 13.5% towards the total employment in the United Kingdom. There are two reasons for the growth of the sector. There has been the increase in the consciousness to keep fi t as health concerns have risen, which has hiked the demand for better facilities and spaces for exercise (20th Century London, 2010). In addition, sedentary lifestyle has urged people to look for convenient places to exercise. Thus, Sports Fitness Centre, Mayfair London, should position itself as a Fitness and Health Club. 5.2 Marketing mix To develop the marketing strategy the essential of the marketing mix have to be evaluated. Product mix The product should satisfy a need or a want. The need at this moment is healthy living. Healthy living can be achieved through different activities

Investment in an Uncertain World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Investment in an Uncertain World - Essay Example 10,000,000 = 6,000,000 + 1,000,000 + G G = 10,000,000 – 6,000,000 – 1,000,000 = G = 3,000,000 G as a percentage of GDP = (G divided by Y) and multiplied by 100. =(3,000,000/10,000,000) *100 = = 30 per cent. (ii) Calculate households’ savings as a percentage of GDP. Explain your calculations. (6 marks) In this situation, Y = C + I + G (Savings = Investment = Gross Capital Formation) Therefore, Y = C + S + G. And S as the percentage of Y = (S/Y)* 100 = (1,000,000/10,000,000) *100 = = 0.10 * 100 = 10 per cent Therefore, households’ savings are 10 per cent of GDP. 1b. Now imagine an unexpected shock to the economy (not predicted by the majority of economists and other experts), which hits households’ confidence so that they increase their savings until these amount to 25 per cent of GDP. (i) Under Say’s Law, what is the mechanism by which firms’ investment is expected to change and what will its new value be? J. B. Say, a French classical economist, says supply creates its own demand until the equilibrium between the two is reached. By extension, Say’s law also applies to money market. When there is a glut of savings, there will be more supply of money than demand. As a result, interest rate for borrowing will come down and investment will increase. In this given case, since the savings have increased to 25 percent of GDP, investment should also increase by the same ratio of GDP. Thus, market finds the equilibrium between demand and supply for money through variations in interest rate. (ii) According to the demand-side approach, explain why firms might not necessarily adjust their investment plans. The demand-side approach argues that investors do not automatically make their investment because demand has increased. To invest, they have to be confident about the future – for the demand to sustain. Investments are often long term about which we know very little. Keynes says, ‘If we speak frankly, w e have to admit that our basis of knowledge for estimating the yield 10 year hence of a railway, a copper mine, a textile factory, the goodwill of a patent medicine, an Atlantic liner, a building in the City of London amounts to little and sometimes nothing’ (Keynes, quoted in Walsh, 2008, p. 63). In such a situation of uncertainty, the animal spirit of investors drives investors to invest. Investors wait for that spirit, which gives them confidence, to develop before they invest. This explains the fluctuation in investments and departure from the supply-demand equilibrium. For instance, in the 1999 recession, ‘the reduction in output of 1.4 per cent coincided with an 8.1 percent fall in investment’ (Trigg, 2010, p. 230). In conclusion, investors do not make adjustments in their investment plan until they are confident about making money. (iii) If firms did not change their investment plans, explain what would be the consequences for national income and how fisca l policy might be used to address this situation. (11 marks) Investment has a direct impact on national income, and fiscal policy often encourages firms to invest in order to restore the gap between savings and investment. Government expenditure is one of the key components of national income. When government increases its expenditure, national income rises; when it decreases its spending, national income also declines. Government thus can influence national income. Classical economics believes that savings and

Acupressure Complimentary Treatment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Acupressure Complimentary Treatment - Assignment Example Acupressure machine rental within the center itself. The machines can be used in the center which will be open six days per week and can be rented out on a pay per session rate of  £10 plus vat or a monthly subscription of  £100 per month plus vat. The complementary therapy. The therapists will be partnering with the center so they will not receive payment for attending rather they will receive a fifty percent split on profits earned per session. My model encourages the complimentary treatment model to be rolled out away from its usual niche environment and instead it is on offer in a high street setting. Up to now, any complimentary centers which I have seen operating in the high street have operated in below par premises which are not in keeping with a therapeutic environment. By offering a quality service in a high street environment at a competitive rate this presents a unique offering to the customers. Furthermore, the implementation of acupressure rental is a significant addition to the therapeutic center; it provides an economic therapeutic option to the customer while presenting my business with another viable income stream. Also, complementary treatments can be upsold from acupressure rental subscribers and cross sales can be created from therapy customers to acupressure machine rental. Up sales to complementary therapies in the center namely: Acupuncture; Head massage; Reflexology and kinesiology and also cross sales back from the therapies to device rental. There is also the logic behind the therapies been offered; acupuncture is a natural progression from acupressure rental; head massage is a quick and relaxing treatment which suits busy shoppers as does Reflexology.  Ã‚  

How to Achieve Better Work-Life Balance Essay Example for Free

How to Achieve Better Work-Life Balance Essay For most of us these days, having to work is not an option, but a necessity. Struggling to maintain a job and a family can be demanding and stressful. While dealing with everyday chores at home, dinner, homework and other responsibilities, some people think that being at work is like having a break. On the other hand, for a single person, work may be the only social life they have. While using the workplace as an outlet to get away from it all or as a place to socialize, it is important to be aware of actions at work that might annoy your co-workers. Manners do matter, not only in your social life but your workplace. Manners can come into various forms, but professional etiquette in a workplace is vital, if you want to be respected or even make your job easier. For example, if your job involves you sending emails to other clients, associates or managers. You always want the email to content a greeting, and goodbye. I said respectable because there are different forms of greetings and goodbyes depending on the receiver. Manners mean behavior that is considered to be polite in a particular society and culture Manners are what you do in a specific way to be polite, courteous, etc. showing proper manners means making the person around you not feel bad. Example: You say ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ to show good manners. You are not ‘showing etiquette’ while doing this. As everybody already knows that it’s a professional etiquette to use these words at work! Professional manner etiquette consists of professional dress code the right dress with the right contrast of color combination of shoe and socks, exposing physical structure must be avoided. professional appearance, punctuality, use of professional language, positive attitude, non-verbal communication skills, maintaining hygiene. Manners impact of how others perceive you and your company. Your appearance and dress code, your way of welcoming people at first sight or later, your body language, your way of choosing words for your business conversation, your way of managing time effectively, your professional way of interacting with people and finally your mindset are the core components of your professional manner and etiquette. Each company must have a manual for professional manner and etiquette. New recruits should go through an induction program to understand these sensitive issues to deal with people at work. Even every year there should be a review of a company’s professional manner and etiquette to update its manual to keep pace with the changing trends of global fashion and life style. Conducting a job interview is the most widely used selection tool. It has proved most reliable and the employers rely on it in preference to any other tool. It is a process designed to predict future job performance by candidate\s oral responses to oral inquiries. For having a better comprehension of Job interviewing it is proper will to go through the definitions of the interview and job interview. An interview as defined is a conversation between two people where the interviewer put questions to the interviewees to get information from him. Job Interview on the other hand is generally defined as a conversation between an employer and a job candidate, where the employer evaluates a candidate for prospective employment in the organization. The two definitions show that an interview is a general term used for all kinds of interview, it gives out the broad outlines of the term interview. Job interview on the other hand is specific to a particular area namely employment. But, this is a common misconception that job interview is a unilateral process which, is not the case. The above definition of Job interview is very similar to definition of Job Interviewing, but not that of job interview as it does not give the full picture and is incomplete.

Examine The Legality Of Military Humanitarian Intervention International Law Essay

Examine The Legality Of Military Humanitarian Intervention International Law Essay The general prohibition on the use of force contained in Article 2(4)  [1]  of the UN Charter forms a cornerstone of public international law. That prohibition is subject to a very narrow category of exceptions, all of which arise from the right to self-defence codified in Article 51 of the UN Charter.  [2]  A more controversial exception to the use of force that has been claimed to arise as a rule of customary international law is that of humanitarian intervention. This essay looks at the arguments in support of the proposition that humanitarian intervention is now established in international law as a lawful exception to the general prohibition on the use of force and assertions against such a proposition. The theoretical debate Ever since the question of the legality of humanitarian intervention first arose, there has been both vocal support and opposition to it. Lauterpacht famously put forward the rationale behind humanitarian intervention. He stated that one had to go back to the purpose of the general prohibition on the use of force, and that was to ensure peace. He considered that ultimately, peace is more endangered by tyrannical contempt for human rights than by attempts to assert, through intervention, the sanctity of human personality.  [3]  He thus considered that humanitarian intervention was justified if a state committed atrocities against its citizens in such a way and to such a degree that it interfered with those citizens fundamental human rights. However, it has always been appreciated that there are problems with the very idea that a state would expend its own resources and risk its own security simply for the good of the citizens of another state. Such a view might be considered to be cynical, but there is no doubt that history has shown that whenever humanitarian intervention is claimed as the legal basis for military force in another country, it is mixed with other reasons why a state would military intervene in another state.  [4]  Furthermore, humanitarian intervention is often put forward as a basis for legality of force without the citizens of the state who have suffered the intervention asking for such intervention to take place.  [5]  One can therefore question the theoretical underpinnings of such intervention. This problem is only exacerbated when one considers that humanitarian intervention is intervention that is undertaken by states on a unilateral basis outside of the precepts of the Security Council. The purpose of setting up the United Nations and the Security Council was to provide for peace throughout the world and engage in military intervention when required, as authorised by the Security Council. The Security Council is thus authorised with powers under Chapter VII of the UN Charter that allows it to authorise military use of force in another country. In doing so, the Security Council is able to take into account the fact that a particular country is facing human rights violations at the hands of its government and/or leaders.  [6]  Thus for example, in 1991, when the oppressive government of Iraq being led by Saddam Hussein took disproportionate military action to repress the Iraqi civilian population, the Security Council passed Resolution 668 under Chapter 7 of the UN Cha rter demanding of Iraq to immediately end the repression and insist that it allowed access to international humanitarian organisations to enter Iraq.  [7]   Any force authorised by the Security Council may be politically contentious, but there is no doubt that it would be lawful under the rules of force in international law. Given that there is such a power in the Security Council, one would question why there was a need for humanitarian intervention.  [8]  Indeed, providing that there is a right for humanitarian intervention available to states that can be exercised independently of the UN and the Security Council would greatly undermine the function of the Security Council as the body entrusted with authorisation of military force.  [9]   Humanitarian intervention is thus a doctrine which has long been debated in the courts. The real debate lies however in the practical instances that have arisen in the past where humanitarian intervention has been alleged as a justification of force. The section below shall go on to analyse these practical instances and asses to what extent humanitarian intervention can be said to now be a norm of international law. Practical instances of humanitarian intervention One major problem that arises when assessing the legality of the doctrine of humanitarian intervention is that one must distinguish between instances where the doctrine is invoked in rhetoric and public relations only and instanced where humanitarian intervention is actually relied on as a legal basis for justifying use of force in another state. The latter is a lot rarer than the former. The problem however is that it is only the latter incidents that is actually evidence of state practise of the right to humanitarian intervention. One of the earliest incidents to deal with the concept of humanitarian intervention commented on by commentators was that of Indian action in Bangladesh. In early 1971, following subjugation to Pakistani rule, Bangladeshi nationals were rebelling and seeking to establish Bangladesh as an independent country. India provided extensive military aid to Bangladesh to allow this to happen, aid without which arguably Bangladesh would not have won the conflict. In public theoretic, India stated thats is actions were based on humanitarian intervention since the Bangladeshis were suffering human rights violations under Pakistani rule.  [10]  This was highly criticised however for the fact was that India in having long-standing conflict with Pakistan itself did have vested interests in helping Bangladesh gain independence.  [11]  Indeed, India did not go on to utilise humanitarian intervention as a legal basis for its action and sought to rely on the doctrine of self-defence instead.  [12]   This pattern was repeated in many more incidents that occurred. Tanzania intervened militarily in Uganda in 1979 to enable rebels there to overthrow the repressive leader Idi Amin.  [13]  In 1978 Vietnam invaded Cambodia stating that it wished to prevent Cambodia from suffering at the hands of its government. Both stated that they wished to help the citizens of the respective countries they intervened in. This was however continuously rejected by the international community, with France and the US specifically stating that human rights violations did not justify the use of force, thus clearly indicating that it was not accepted at that time that humanitarian intervention was considered to be a legal basis for intervention.  [14]   Chronologically, the next major incident of humanitarian intervention that took place was that of Australian intervention in East Timor. Rebels in East Timor seeking to establish it as in independent country were facing repression from the state of Indonesia resisting independence. Human rights violations in the situation ensued resulting in several UN Resolutions calling for peace and eventually in a UN referendum, the results of which indicated that the majority of people wished for independence. The Australian government thus took the lead in providing military assistance to East Timor to repel Indonesian presence and establish an independent state.  [15]  In doing so, the Australian government expressly relied on the right to humanitarian intervention.What must be pointed out however is that the UN was involved in that situation, and most commentators regard that the intervention in East Timor is more akin to an incident where the UN regulates force for purposes of humanitari an intervention rather than when the right is employed unilaterally by a state.  [16]  Thus, the intervention in East Timor was seen to be highly similar to the US intervention in Somalia in 1992 which had been acted upon only after the UN had specifically called for humanitarian intervention.  [17]   Perhaps the most famous incident of humanitarian intervention was that in Kosovo. Kosovo, now an independent country, used to be part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and consisted of a mix of ethnicities, with 90% being ethnical Albanians and the minority being Serbians. In the 1990s the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia started to break up with each different country announcing its independence. The state of Kosovo also suggested breaking off from the FRY, to regain the independence Kosovo once had before Yugoslavia was established in the first place. This was met by much resistance from the Serbians both in Serbia and in Kosovo. A regime of ethnic cleansing of the Albanians in Kosovo started to prevent the calls and efforts by those peoples to make Kosovo an independent country and one of the worlds worst conflicts started, with human rights violations reaching epidemic proportions.  [18]   This matter was brought to the attention of the Security Council, and on 31 March 1998 it adopted Resolution 1160,  [19]  which imposed an arms embargo on the FRY and called for it to work with the Kosovar Albanians to achieve a peaceful solution to the matter. Following this however the violence in Kosovo only intensified and Resolution 1199 was adopted which determined that the situation in Kosovo amounted to a threat to peace and security in the region.  [20]  The problem was however the presence of the veto in the Security Council. Every permanent member of the Security Council has the right to veto any Security Council resolutions made. Russia being a major part of the former Soviet Union that existed was highly reluctant to take any action further to the two resolutions already adopted against the FRY and indicated that it would use its veto if any resolution were attempted to be passed which authorised military measures to be taken against the FRY. There was little cha nce that the Security Council would therefore be able to take action in response to the situation that was ongoing in Kosovo.  [21]   As a result of this, NATO states came together to discuss military intervention in Kosovo. NATO declared that the FRY had not complied with Resolution 1199 and that NATO would therefore institute military action against Russia. Extensive military action was undertaken via an aerial campaign, attacking FRY forces both in Kosovo and in the FRY itself to attempt to stop the attacks that were taking place against Kosovo. The campaign commenced ion 23 March 1999 and did not end several months later, on 10 June 1999 when the FRY forces agreed to a case-fire and signed the military-technical agreement with NATO on 9 June 1999.  [22]   There was no doubt that the military action undertaken by NATO had been successful in bringing peace to the region. Despite the fact that there was no apparent basis at the time for military action, there was no international objection to the force used (other than by the states to whom the military action was targeted against). It was apparently accepted that the action undertaken by NATO was lawful.  [23]  From this, one can deduct that there must have been a valid theoretical underlying to the force taken. It was clear that the action was not authorised under the Security Council resolutions, for while the resolutions were relied on in justifying the military action undertaken, it was always accepted that the resolutions did not authorise military force and indeed did not attempt to do so because of the veto that would be exercised by Russia. There was no question that the Serb forces had carried out an armed attack against NATO countries or anyone in the region of NATO countries and so the doctrines of self-defence or collective self-defence could not be relied on. The only remaining doctrine that could have possibly justified the military force undertaken by NATO forces was therefore that of humanitarian intervention. Indeed, the situation in Kosovo appears to be the one that elevated the doctrine of humanitarian intervention from what was seen to be a less than credible basis of justification of use of force to one that was apparently widely accepted.  [24]   Thus commentators who point out that the doctrine was accepted as applying to the case of Kosovo point to the wide apparent acceptance of the international community that the acts of NATO in Kosovo were legal. In March 1999 the states of Belarus and Russia introduced a draft resolution to the Security Council which stated that the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia was illegal. This was rejected by a majority of 12 votes. In 1999, the UN Commission on Human Rights passed a resolution finding that the intervention by NATO had been lawful, with only Russia and Cuba (both communist states) finding against such a resolution.  [25]   Kosovo is therefore at least one incident where the right to humanitarian intervention was both relied on and appears to have been accepted. The difficulty lies in the fact that while the military action undertaken against Kosovo was considered to be morally justified, concerns continue to be expressed by academic commentators that the incident should not be seen to act as precedent, for doing so would effectively widen the category of exceptions that existed in relation to the use of force and undermine the well-established rules of Article 2(4).  [26]   Perhaps the next most famous incident where the right of humanitarian intervention was relied on, but one where the basis of such a right was considered to be much more contentious, was that of Iraq.  [27]  Coalition military intervention in Iraq in 2003 was one of the most contentious use of force that took place and the legality of the war continues to be debated to the current day. Different bases were offered by the coalition states that went to war at different times. Saddam Husseins brutal treatment of his people and the human rights violations that they had suffered were often pointed to when the rhetoric on whether a war should take place was entered into.  [28]  What is notable however was that although apparently doing so in the period preceding the war, neither the US nor the UK legally relied on the doctrine of humanitarian intervention to justify its war in Iraq. Rather, the UK relied on interpretation of Security Council resolutions while the US argued for the r ight of self-defence, both pointing to the fact that Iraq was in possession of weapons of self-destruction (an assertion which was later discovered to be invalid).  [29]  The fact that humanitarian intervention was not relied on despite the fact that Iraq was suffering a humanitarian catastrophe and had been for several years indicates that neither of the worlds leading states considered that the right to humanitarian intervention had established itself as a legal norm and would not, formally at least, be accepted by the international community as a bass for military intervention. Responsibility to protect The humanitarian intervention doctrine has evolved in recent times and international law has come to develop the responsibility to protect doctrine, often referred to as the R2P doctrine. The very existence of this doctrine supports the idea that humanitarian intervention is not only regarded as a moral justification of the use of force in states where human rights violations are being committed, but is a positive duty on the international community to act and intervene in states where there is inadequate respect for human rights. UN Secretary General Kofi Anan brought the tensions that were apparent behind the prohibition on the use of force in Article 2(4) and the fact that intervention was required as a result of increasing human rights violations that were seen around the world to the fore in 1999. At that date, the atrocities in Rwanda were being discussed by the international community, and the committee that had been set up to investigate how the genocide in Rwanda had taken place came back with reports attributing much blame to the UN for failing to take action in Rwanda in what was seen as a preventable genocide.  [30]  Annan therefore requested the General Assembly to answer the question of: if humanitarian intervention is, indeed an unacceptable assault on sovereignty, how should we response to Rwanda, to a Srebrenica to gross and systematic violations of human rights?.  [31]   The Canadian government in response to this question set up the ICISS. In 2001 the ICISS produced a report where the doctrine of the responsibility to protect was advanced.  [32]  In 2004, the High-Level Panel on threats, challenges and changes that had been set up by the UN secretary-General stated that the R2P doctrine was an emerging norm of collective international responsibility to protect.  [33]  The Secretary-General went on to endorse this finding. In a 2005 world summit, the R2P doctrine was expressly accepted and referred to.  [34]   Perhaps the most pertinent recognition of the R2P doctrine is that the Security Council specifically referred to the doctrine in Resolution 1674 (2006) when it was regarding the question of how civilians in armed conflicts should be protected.  [35]  The Resolution referred to the R2P doctrine as a doctrine of international law apparently conferring upon it a status of customary international law or otherwise. The problem with the fact that R2P now appears to be part of international law is the emergence of further questions, namely what the relationship of the doctrine of humanitarian intervention with the R2P doctrine is. Is the R2P doctrine simply any other way of describing humanitarian intervention? Or are the two concepts entirely different? If so, is humanitarian intervention subject to the doctrine of R2P? Debate on these questions commenced ever since the R2P doctrine was put forward and has ensued ever since. One might consider that the R2P doctrine is in fact simply another way of describing the doctrine of humanitarian intervention, and one that seeks to grant the doctrine a more elevated status. The language of responsibility no doubt confers more powers than the language of rights does for while the latter grants states discretion in whether to exercise the particular rights of concern, the former does not. If one were to accept such an argument, then the fact that R2P now appears to be a doctrine of international law means that humanitarian intervention is also a rule of international law and such intervention legalises use of force in other states. However, the ICISSs formulation of the R2P doctrine is on the basis that it is an entirely different concept to the doctrine of humanitarian intervention. The ICISS report thus stated that humanitarian intervention should not be seen to be the prime concern in the modern world where catastrophic human rights violations such as Rwanda were taking place. The Commission argued that there was a need for a new doctrine, which governed the need to intervene in the affairs of states who committed human rights violations. Such a doctrine should not be seen as a right to intervene that was granted to the intervening state, as humanitarian intervention might do, but rather as a responsibility on other states to intervene as a result of the right of the state that was suffering human rights violations to be protected.  [36]   R2P also introduced a new method of dealing with the concept of state sovereignty. As set out above, the doctrine of humanitarian intervention does not tie in well with the concept of state sovereignty, for it effectively allows a sate to intervene in another states affairs on the ground that the former state is of the opinion that the latter states treatment of its own citizen is in accurate. Such a concept can be seen to go against the very idea of equality of states in international law.  [37]  The R2P doctrine proposes to deal with this tension by proposing that the concept of state sovereignty to control its citizens with that of sovereignty as responsibility to protect its citizens. Once again, there was a shift from rights to responsibility. The R2P doctrine effectively re-characterises the conception of state sovereignty as one that is a right of governments to control their citizens, to one where there is a duty on governments to protect its citizens, and rights are gran ted to citizens to be protected. Where these rights were not being complied with and a government was not protecting its citizens and was in fact committing human rights violations against it, then the sovereignty to protect was not being effected and this sovereignty did not exist. As such, any exercise of the R2P doctrine through the use of military force would not contravene any idea of sovereignty.  [38]   Such a proposal can be commended for its view of the principle of state sovereignty. The fact is that the concept of state sovereignty and the idea that a state is able to control its citizens as it wishes is one that while remaining in theory can be seen not to have continued on an international basis. International law has long adjudicated to govern the relationship of a state and its individuals. A prime example of this can be seen to be in international human rights protections which essentially impose standards on states with regards to a states treatment of its citizens which must be complied with.  [39]  The very concept of the international community and of the United Nations necessitates a limiting of the concept of state sovereignty. The reformulation of the concept of state sovereignty from one which sees sovereignty as control to that to protect might be considered to be ingenious in that it resolves the theoretical tensions that exist between the right to military in tervention in states where human rights violations are committed and sovereignty of that state. However, the fact is that the concept of sovereignty as sovereignty to protect still poses the same problems that the traditional concept of state sovereignty controls: Sovereignty to protect allows a third state to intervene in a states matters when protection of citizens is not being undertaken adequately. Which state is to decide however when citizens protection is being undertaken adequately and when it is not? To what extent does the protection of citizens in a state have to be undermined before military action can be allowed in that state?  [40]   Thus, whether or not R2P is the same or a different doctrine to that of humanitarian intervention, the same difficulties that are faced by humanitarian intervention proponents remain, and perhaps the most major of these problems is the wide floodgates the idea of a responsibility to protect opens. Practical incidents have shown how in the past humanitarian intervention has wrongfully been used by states, often on a post-facto basis, to justify use of force and intervention in other states. The R2P doctrine in fact provides for a wider scope of humanitarian intervention for as pointed out above, a responsibility imposes a larger duty and therefore a larger scope of power on states to take action than a right to intervene does, and the R2P doctrine therefore arguably exacerbates the problem that humanitarian intervention traditionally faced. In this vein however it must be noted that the proponents of the R2P doctrine point out that unlike humanitarian intervention, the R2P would impose a duty on states to employ a wide range of measures, along a continuum, to regulate states behaviour. Thus the R2P doctrine envisaged that preventative measures should be used to prevent human rights atrocities, and duties included rebuilding societies that had been affected by human rights violations. Such a doctrine is therefore very commendable in theory.  [41]   Furthermore, it must be pointed out that the R2P doctrine apparently appears to have been envisaged to be utilised within the provisions of the Security Council rather than impose duties or rights on states to act on a unilateral basis to military intervene in other countries. If that is the case, then the R2P doctrine has not really helped towards resolving the questions surrounding humanitarian intervention at all.  [42]   Conclusion The above discussion has shown that there are many questions regarding the legality of humanitarian intervention in international law as a justification for use of force in another state. There is little doubt that in the past the doctrine was not regarded as a valid justification for the use of force. Thus the international community tended to reject attempts by states to justify use of force with the concept of humanitarian intervention, not least because such justification was often posed on an ex facto basis and was usually tied in with some other form of justification that was put forward. The position appeared to change however in the NATO intervention in Kosovo when the international world apparently accepted the legality of the action. The war in Iraq in 2003 however appeared to reverse the position once again, when attempts to rely on humanitarian protection were rejected almost from the outset and indeed the coalition states eventually went on to rely on other basses to jus tify the use of force that was undertaken. The doctrine of humanitarian intervention does have its proponents and certainly is a very attractive concept in international law. In the writers view however the dangers posed by the doctrine outweigh the advantages that it offers. The doctrine effectively widens the scope of exceptions that exist to Article 2(4) and allows states to unilaterally take force. This undermines not only the concept of state sovereignty but also the purpose of the United Nations and the Security Council as being relevant bodies to regulate international peace and security. The R2P doctrine that has been put forward as a doctrine of international law is in many ways preferable to that of humanitarian intervention. The R2P doctrine provides for rights of citizens rather than rights of states and importantly it envisages that military action will be undertaken by the Security Council rather than on a unilateral basis. The writer is therefore of the opinion that the R2P doctrine should be distinguished from the idea of humanitarian intervention R2P should be recognised as a principle of international law and one that allows the Security Council to take military action in state when required. It should not however be seen to extend the doctrine of humanitarian protection. Indeed it is the writers view that humanitarian protection does not exist as a legal right in international law, both in theory and in practise. The doctrine goes against all ideas of state sovereignty and against the prohibition of the use of force in general. Furthermore, states do not appear to have accepted that the doctrine is a norm of law. In this vein, the case of Kosovo can be considered to be an exception in international law.  [43]  In that case, the only reason the Security Council did not take action was because of the presence of the Russian veto, but otherwise there was international consensus that military action should

4G Technology An Analysis

4G Technology An Analysis 4G refers to the Fourth Generation of cellular wireless standards in telecommunications that will succeed it predecessors 3G 2G. It is a high-speed broadband wireless network that offered comprehensive secure all IP based services. According to the ITU, requirements for 4G standards were specified by IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunication-Advanced). The data rates of 4G service for high mobility communication was set to 100 Mbps and low mobility communication was set to 1 Gbps. It focuses on cellular system with extremely high data rates the concept of seamless technology in all wireless systems. Carriers that are using OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing) as an alternative to TDMA and CDMA are promoting their services as 4G even though their data rates are not high according to the ITU. 4G outdoor users that have Internet access through cell phones or smart phones were promised to have a targeted data speed of around 100 Mbps by the IMT-Advanced and the data speed for indoor users such as LAN (Local Area Network) was suppose to be around 1Gbps. This type of higher speed for both fixed and mobile Internet users is truly amazing. 4G proposes scalable channel bandwidth flexibility of up to 40 MHz. The network resources are dynamically utilized shared to sustain more simultaneous users over each call. 4G also has the ability to propose high QoS (Quality of Service) for multimedia support and offer smooth handover heterogeneous networks. It must also have the ability to offer wireless LAN roaming interact with systems used for video broadcasting. Figure 5: Seamless Connection of Networks in 4G [5]. The 4G architecture comprises of 3 crucial areas of connectivity namely PAN (Personal Area Network) WAN (Wide Area Network Cellular Connectivity Each device will have the ability to interact with the Internet based information that is modified over the network used by the device at that time. This structure can support a wide range of 4G mobile devices that sustain global roaming. In 4G networks users that join the network have the ability to add mobile routers to the infrastructure. Changing user patterns can be accommodated by dynamically shifting network capacity coverage. Creating additional routes as the concentration of people is higher in one area compared to the other enables additional access to the capacity of the network. Users can easily avoid congested routes by hoping to the less congested routes. This allows the network to automatically balance the capacity by increasing the network utilization. The service for all the users improve with the increase in number of users. Need for 4G One of the questions that come to mind when thinking about future 4G systems is there need. The first application to be mobilized was voice telephony, few years ago. The short message service (SMS) was the first application to be introduced as a mass-market application. The hardware complexity was not an issue at the given time along with the advantage of small bandwidth requirements. The SMS was just the commencement of various data services like mobile email, web browsing etc. The key feature in most of them was the packet based wireless networks carrying IP data in one hand and powerful terminals that could cope with these applications on the other. Although the network capacity is still not an issue due to less number of users, there are number of reasons for increased bandwidth requirements in the future. First, the number of wireless users increases exponentially resulting into an increase in bandwidth requirement. Second, the popularity of video and music downloads has increas ed immensely within few years. The information content in a video or music is more than the corresponding text but so is the capacity requirement. Last but not the least, mobile social networks have taken the current internet usage to a much higher level. Picture viewing sites, web blogs and also video sharing sites have reshaped the internet. The need for 4G arises from insufficient performances by 3G to meet the future needs several incompatible standards. The requirement for service portability, universal mobility the need for hybrid networks including both WLAN cellular network design led to the invention of 4G. New modulation methods that offered higher bandwidth with the help of an all IP based network with converged data voice capability were possible only by 4G. The chief characteristic developed by 4G was to offer accommodation for the QoS services that were set as requirements by the ITU. 4G technology guarantees secure, comprehensive invulnerable IP based mobile service solutions for wireless modems, laptops, smartphones other mobile devices. Applications such as Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), mobile TV, wireless broadband access, video chat, and Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) are being urbanized to use a 4G network. Other IP based services include enhanced gaming, high quality multimedia streaming, IP telephony really fast broadband Internet can be accessed. This groundbreaking technology will have many more facilities available to users all around the world. Imagine having the ability to access information and services anytime, anywhere with a seamless connection as well as receiving large quantity of information, pictures, data video are the key aspects of 4G technology. The future 4G networks would consists of a set of numerous networks having IP based services as their common protocol such that the users are in control can choose each application and environment. The chief achievement would be integrating 4G technology with the existing cellular technologies with the help of advanced technologies. The main features of 4G services that interest the users specifically are high dynamic integration application adaptability. This means services are delivered available to the users as per their preference users traffic, radio environment air interfaces are all supported by 4G. Over the years researchers have been working on ways of fulfilling the above needs. Ethernet, Wireless LAN and TD-CDMA, were all supported by the developed network overall. The mobile technology of 4G should be focusing on the data-rate increase, new air-interface. The so-called core of the technology, OWA platform should also be embedded with high-speed wireless systems and wireless mobile system. It should also, Reuse many different access technologies as possible thereby implementing various functions using the IP-based protocols and technologies. Provide real-time services with high enough quality like the current cellular networks. Accessibility to services that should not be affected by the handover interruption. Mobile systems should have interfaces from various technologies simultaneously specially to TDCDMA (UMTS-TDD), wireless LANs (802.11b), and fixed networks (Ethernet). Be capable of accessing to routers and provide an interface between a wired network domain and wireless. A single access router directly mapped to a single cell controls an IP subnet. Provide a network management server for mobility management, charging, Quality of Service, security and paging issues in a fixed network. Features of 4G Features of 4G Wireless Systems: User Personalization and Friendliness: The combination of personalization and friendliness is a key feature in 4G. The well-designed transparency allows man and the machine to interact naturally and is well appreciated. The operator can send the data to the user depending on his/her preference or the data can even be filtered at the user end based on his/her requirement. In order to address a mass market and gain a positive impact on peoples lifestyle it should be kept in mind that every user wants to feel unique and important. Thus personalization enables the user to configure his device and select the services according to his preferences. The combination hence confers the right value to the users expense. Heterogeneity: 4G should have a definite advantage in the users day-to-day life. This is obtained by combining the network and terminology heterogeneity, both of which contribute equally to the efficiency of usage. With network heterogeneity, omni-directional connection and common service can be obtained thereby assuring certain level of quality of service. Heterogeneity enables a user to access and perform multiple things simultaneously for example, if a user wants to buy tickets to a museum and listen to music, he can do that. Terminals in 4G may have to some common services out of their capabilities due to which tailoring of the content might become necessary. Since it is based on IP wireless connectivity, the optimization of internet is maximized. The circuit switching technology is replaced by packet switching. The specificity of an IP, thus increase the speed along with the reliability of transfer of data. The bandwidth is around 100Mhz and speed of data transmission up to 1 Gbps. Support: It supports multimedia, voice, video, wireless internet and other broadband services. Cost Effective: Transmission costs of various multimedia services are very low. High capacity, high speed and low cost per bit. Cost of leased spectrum figures in greatly in reaching profitability. For example, the initial resistance from the investment society is a hindrance for WiMAX. This in turn pushes the operators to create new ways of increasing capital. Global mobility, service portability and scalable mobile networks. Seamless switching or usually referred as handover is gaining popularity. Availability of inter- and intra- technology handovers promises minimum or no interruption thereby assuring Quality of Service (QoS). This is achieved with the help of continuous transparent maintenance of services and inclusion of WiFi to OFDMA. Better scheduling and call admission control techniques are available. Ad hoc networks and multi-hop networks: the independency from routers and access points is an added advantage. The dynamic activation of sender and receiver nodes is similar to a real-time system that is definitely a plus point of 4G. Also the network topology comes into play where every node is contributing to the data transmission. Mobility of users across multiple terminals and terminals across multiple technologies. Confidentiality of both user traffic and the network control information. 4G uses the IPV6 address scheme resulting in every cell having its own IP address. Interlayer security is provided in which only one layer is configured to do encryption on data. Predecessors of 4G LTE Long Term Evolution LTE (Long Term Evolution) is yet another technology under the brand of 4G technology. LTE is capable of giving a full support to the spectrum bands. Upgrading the current 3G networks to WiMAX is difficult in comparison to LTE. The pre 4G technology is known as 3GPP Long Term Evolution. If a 20 MHz channel is used LTE has a capacity of up to 50 Mbps in the uplink 100 Mbps in the downlink. WiMAX- Worldwide interoperability for Microwave Access WiMAX or Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a faster Wi-Fi listed under 4G. Mobile operators using the latest spectrum bands benefits most from the WiMAX. If a 20 MHz channel is used WiMAX would offer data rates up to 56 Mbps in uplink 128 Mbps downlink. UMB Ultra Mobile Broadband UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) is based on TCP/IP networking technologies cascaded over next generation radio system with data rates up to 280 Mbps. The system was intended to be more proficient powerful of supplying more services than the technologies it was suppose to replace. UMB was the name within 3GPP2 standardization group to improve the mobile standards for next generation applications requirements. Qualcomm is UMBs lead sponsor ended the development of this technology supporting LTE instead. It intended to achieve data rates over 275 Mbps downstream over 75 Mbps upstream. Flash OFDM At an initial stage Flash-OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) was supposed to be integrated into a 4G standard. 4G Architecture 1G wireless telecommunications led to the invention of the first kind of wireless cellular architecture that is still being offered by most cellular network providers. 2G could support more users in a cell than 1G by using digital technology. This technology gave access to many more callers by making use of the same multiplexed channel. It was primarily used for voice communication also included some very limited low rate data features such as SMS (Short Messaging Service). 2.5G gave access to the carriers to increase the data rates with just software upgrades with just making the users buy new handsets. 3G promised its users to offer greater bandwidth higher data rates that grants permission to send as well as receive more information. All 3 generations still have the Cellular Architecture or Star Topology where users within that cell can access a common central BTS (Base Transceivers Stations). The major advantage is that with this architecture carriers are able to construct nationwide networks, which most of the major carriers have already done. The major disadvantages of these networks as we progress are that as the data rate increases the output power increases so the size of the cell needs to be decreased in order to accommodate higher data rates. We would observe smaller cells as the consumers got scared with the increase in the output power. Some of the other disadvantages include no load balancing, singular failure point and spectral inefficiencies. The two very important characteristics of 4G technologies are: End-to-End Internet Protocol Peer-to-Peer Networking An all IP network would allow the users to use the same data applications that they use in wired networks. In peer-to-peer networking each device acts as a transceiver and a router for all the other devices in the network. This architecture eliminates the failure of single node. 4G is referred to as an ad hoc wireless networking technology, a combination of above characteristics. 4G plays a significant role by allowing users that are joining the network, the approach to add mobile routers to the existing infrastructure. The usage patterns for consumers dynamically shifts the coverage network capacity to be accommodate the changes as the users carry most of the networks with them. The users congregate leading to high demands of usage that also enables access to the network capacity as they create additional routes for each other. They tend to automatically skip from congested routes to lesser-congested routes. This authorizes the network to automatically balance capacity leading to an increase in network utilization. The user device that operate as router are basically a part of the infrastructure. So instead of carriers reducing the cost of devices they actually minimized and deployed the network of the carrier. 4G Mobile Network Architecture Each user interprets 4G mobile communications differently. For some its purely provides higher data rates to radio interfaces but for other it is internetworking of wireless LAN and cellular technologies. In order to accommodate traffic demand foreseen in an economically feasible way , 4G mobile networks must accomplish manifold increase in capacity in comparison to its forerunner. Mobile networks are planned for circuit switched voice until now. Fourth Generation wireless architecture was planned as heterogeneous infrastructure consisting of distinctive access systems in a corresponding manner. The user supporting personal agents enjoys unrestricted and ubiquitous connectivity to various applications over the available network. The figure below illustrates potential 4G mobile network architecture including cellular, satellite radio, ad-hoc and hot spot components. A BSC (Base Station Controller) accumulates calls from various base stations, enables handoffs, allot radio channels between BS (Base Station) and hands over calls to a more central mobile switching center. The emerging data networks overlie the existing voice architecture. With the increase in the data traffic this architecture has turned out to be cumbersome difficult to be managed with several network entities. The architecture contains common core Network connected to different wireless and wired networks. It is then connected to PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)/ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) via GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node). GGSN is the chief component of the GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) network. The GGSN is accountable for internetworking between packet switched networks and GPRS network such as Internet. This architecture is associated to 2G via SGSN(Serving GPRA Support Node) from BSC. SGSN is accountable for distribution of data packets to and from mobile stations within its physical service area. Wireless communication is facilitated between UE (User Equipment) and the network by a piece of equipment known as BTS (Base Transreceiver Station). The connection to 3G is through SGSN towards Node B via RNC (Radio Network Controllers). In 2G networks, Node B is equivalent to BTS. RNC replaces BSC and connects to various networks such as Ad-hoc mobile networks and WLAN access networks. Signaling protocols like SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) are extensively used for setting and tearing multimedia communication sessions like video and voice calls above the Internet. The future of mobile communication networks will face challenges in incorporating and integrating various wireless technologies and mobile architectures to achieve flawless wireless infrastructure. Networking technology, has accepted that wireless or wired networks can interface with the core over the IP protocol. IPv6 4G Network Architecture The 4G architecture that supports flawless mobility between distinctive access technologies has an IPv6 based network architecture. Handovers between inter-technology need to be supported else mobility issues will arise. IP network architecture eliminates the voice-centric structure from the network. Instead of packet data overlaying on voice network separate, rather simple data architecture can be implemented which eliminates multiple elements from the network. BSC functions are equally distributed among media gateway router and BS over WAN. These include Radio Bearer control, dynamic allocations and radio resource management that are handled by base stations whereas gateway router handles distribution of paging messages and security. Ethernet- 802.3 is used for grant wired access and Ethernet -802.11 is used for LAN access. The radio interface W-CDMA of UMTS is used extensively for cellular access. This arises the need for mobility to be implemented in the network layer as it cant be handled by the lower layers. IPv6 mechanism is used for internetworking eliminating the need to use internal procedure for handover over any technology. This clarifies that no internal procedures are sustained in W-CDMA cells but the same IP protocol facilitates the movement among the cells. The figure above illustrates a few handover potential in such a network to accommodate a moving user. The users can handover among any of theses technologies without splitting the network connection as well as supporting voice connections. The users have the opportunity to wander between administrative domains while having the capability to use their services across domains. There should be appropriate agreements among the existing domains. The service providers have the capability to track the usage of their consumers both on and off their network like while roaming. The entire network inclusive of all management functions and applications was being employed with the IPv6 protocol over the Linux environment. AAAC and QoS subsystems were responsible for providing service to each user according to the SLA (Service Level Agreement). The software for these was extended resorting to a combination of existing implementations and newly included modules. The 4 administrative domains are depicted in the figure with various access technologies. An AAAC (Authentication, Authorization, Auditing and Charging) system manages each administrative domain. At least one network access control entity, the QoS Broker, is required per domain. Due to the requirements of full service control by the provider, all the handovers are explicitly handled by the management infrastructure through IP-based protocols, even when they are intra- technology, such as between two different Access Points in 802.11, or between two different Radio Network Controllers in WCDMA [7]. The network providers are responsible for all the network resources while the user control their local network, applications and terminal. The key characteristics of this network architecture are : A User : It refers to a company or a person with SLA constricted with a provider for certain set of services. The architecture is concerned about granting access to the users and not specific terminals. MT (Mobile Terminal) : It is the terminal that gives access to the users for services. The network architecture can support terminal portability leading to the sharing of the terminal among various users though not at the same time. AR (Access Router) : This is the generic mode of connection to the network that gets the name of RG (Radio Gateway) for basically wireless access. PA (Paging Agent) : it is responsible for situating MT when it is idle and there are packets that need to be delivered to it. QoS Broker : it is solely responsible for managing one or more ARs. the AAAC system provides information that is used to control user access and access rights. AAAC System : It is responsible for SLA including charging and accounting. NMS (Network Management System) : It is responsible for overall network control and management. This entity guarantees and manages the accessibility of resources in the main network. This network is proficient of supporting several functions namely : Confidentiality both of user traffic and of the network control information QoS levels guaranties to traffic flows Inter-operator information interchange for multiple-operator scenarios Mobility of terminals across multiple technologies Mobility of users across multiple terminals IMT-Advanced Network Architecture The ITU specified IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) specifications for 4G standards. The data rate requirements for 4G service was set at 100 Mbps for high-level mobility communication and 1 Gbps for low-level mobility communication. Pre-4G technologies such as WiMAX and LTE have been in the market for a while. The most current version of these technologies do not accomplish the ITU requirements for 4G service. IMT-Advanced in compliance with the above 2 technologies are still under development and are namely called LTE-Advanced WirelessMan-Advanced The figure above illustrates the perception of a unified architecture developed by IMT-Advanced network built on IP as the common layer protocol. This interface facilitates services that allow the use of communication networks by the yet to be developed devices. With significant improvements in access speeds popular applications in wire line can be transferred under wireless networks in a identical flawless way. Application of 4G: Virtual Presence : 4G would provide user services to its users at all times irrespective of the fact that the user is on or offsite. The location applications of 4G would maintain a virtual database containing graphical representations and physical characteristics of metropolitan areas. This database can be accessed by users from anywhere by using appropriate wireless equipment, which would give the platform to appear virtual. Tele-medicine : 4G would create a platform to monitor the health of patients remotely through video-conferencing with the capability for doctors assistance at anywhere and at anytime. Crisis-Management Applications: Natural disasters leading to the breakdown of entire communications infrastructure needs to be restored as quickly as possible. In general it may take about a week or so to restore the services with 4G the communication services can be re-established in a couple of hours. Virtual Navigation: It will provide virtual navigation to users so that they can access virtual database to visualize the internal design of buildings. It requires very high speed of transmission. Tele-Geo Processing Applications: It would integrate GPS (Global Positioning System) and GIS (Geographical Information Systems) providing the users with location querying. Education: 4G would provide the opportunity to the people across the globe to continue on-line education in a cost effective manner. Multimedia-Video Services: 4G wireless technology is anticipated to deliver high data rates of multimedia services efficiently. There are two different types of video services: Streaming video and Bursting. Streaming is used only for real-time services and bursting is used for file download using a buffer and can take advantage of the entire available bandwidth. An appropriate solution for operators who are looking to achieve monetary and technical efficiency in their upgrade path would be combining the 2G-3G with 4G network functions. A SGSN+MME node and a GGSN+SGW+PGW node can act as a node for both 2G/3G and a 4G network. There are various solutions that offer flexibility to sparate functions when the traffic grows. 4G evolutions can be eased out by slowly converting the current systems into an integrated 2G/3G/4G system and then ultimately to a 4G system. LTE and SAE requirements are ardently followed. This solution, so far provided by Cisco enables one to enjoy the advantages of the existing system along with the augmentation of 4G so that operators can still use the present system if and when desired. It can support 2G/3G today and through a software upgrade these solutions can support 4G functionality as well when LTE networks are deployed. Cisco claims that operators need not perform forklift upgrades when evolving to 4G. Existing SG SN,GGSN, or PDG can be upgraded to 4G functional elements MME,SGW,PGW, and ePDG through the solution. The existence of a software upgrade solution to switch from 2G/3G to 4G shows the compatibility of 4G with 2G/3G.